Introduction: Dharma—A Lifelong Exploration
As a child, during summer vacations in Kerala, my aunt would narrate stories from the Puranas, ancient Indian mythologies rich with moral and philosophical wisdom. These tales featured heroes of Dharma—figures who, despite trials and temptations, remained steadfast in truth, sacrifice, love, and devotion. They mirrored the categorical imperative of Kant, yet my aunt never explicitly defined Dharma—only referring to these figures as symbols of Dharma (Dharma Prateekam).
Over time, I came to know stories of Harishchandra, the truthful king, Gajendra, the worshipful elephant, and many others. These stories were templates for moral emulation, shaping ethical consciousness through mimesis (learning by imitation). They served not merely as myths but as a pedagogical tool—challenging self-interest and self-preservation in favor of higher ideals.
Yet, an underlying question persisted: What is Dharma?
The Meaning of Dharma: Etymology and Early Interpretations
The Sanskrit root of Dharma is “dhr-“, meaning “to hold, to support, or to maintain.” It first appears in the Rigveda (1400-1000 BCE), where Dharma refers to order amidst chaos.
Dharma in the Rigveda:
“Him [the God Indra], the double lofty, whose lofty power holds fast the two world-halves,
the mountains and plains, the waters and sun, through his bullishness.”
Here, Dharma is the force that upholds the universe, preventing it from collapsing into disorder. But even within the Rigveda, the term is fluid—what Karl Friedrich Geldner (1928) noted as having over 20 translations, including law, order, duty, and custom.
Two Major Interpretations of Dharma
By the time of classical Hindu philosophy, Dharma developed into two primary schools of thought:
- Mimamsaka (Action-Oriented Dharma)
- Dharma emerges through ritual action (karma).
- Jaimini’s Mimamsa Sutras define Dharma as “that which is commanded by sacred injunctions.”
- Ritual sacrifice is central to upholding cosmic and social order.
- Upanishadic (Wisdom-Oriented Dharma)
- Dharma is tied to truth and ultimate reality (satya).
- The Upanishads declare: “Now, Dharma is nothing but the truth” (yo vai sa dharmah satyam vai tat).
- Emphasizes self-knowledge (jnaana) over ritual action.
Dharma in Hindu Epics: The Mahabharata and the Bhagavad Gita
Dharma: A Hidden Truth in a Cave
The Mahabharata—an epic ocean of philosophical inquiry—famously states:
“The essence of Dharma is hidden in a cave.”
Even Vishnu Sukhtankar, the first editor of the Critical Edition of the Mahabharata (1944), admitted:
“Defining Dharma is a task that has taxed better brains than mine.”
Krishna’s Pragmatic Dharma in the Bhagavad Gita
Krishna, in his discourse to Arjuna, revolutionizes Dharma. Unlike the rigid ritualistic Dharma of the Mimamsakas, Krishna presents a fluid and situational Dharma:
- Dharma is context-dependent—what is righteous in one situation may not be in another.
- Dharma is not about perfection—it is about living better each day.
- Dharma is not just about law—it is about fulfilling one’s role while striving for self-transcendence.
Krishna embodies “radical conservatism”—he preserves tradition, yet he urges individuals to transcend social constructs when necessary.
Dharma and the Evolution of Hindu Society
By 200 BCE, Dharma transitioned from an abstract philosophical ideal to structured social law, codified in Dharmashastras and Dharmasutras.
Dharma and the Caste System (Varna-Ashrama Dharma)
The Manusmriti (200 BCE-200 CE) defined Dharma through the lens of varna (social class) and ashrama (stages of life):
- Brahmins (Priests & Scholars) – Custodians of rituals and knowledge.
- Kshatriyas (Warriors & Rulers) – Protectors of Dharma.
- Vaishyas (Merchants & Farmers) – Economic contributors.
- Shudras (Laborers & Artisans) – Service providers.
Manu’s Dharma also emphasized “Prayschitta Vidhi” (penance rules) and “Dharmavidhi” (ritual laws)—reinforcing social hierarchy and duty.
However, not all Hindu texts agreed. The Mahabharata explicitly states:
“One must ignore Dharma based on jati (caste), family, and social status.”
Thus, Hinduism has long held two competing visions of Dharma—one hierarchical and legalistic, the other individual and philosophical.
Dharma in the Modern Age: Colonialism and Social Reform
By the 18th and 19th centuries, British scholars misinterpreted Dharma as an unchanging caste-based system—solidifying social stratification.
Reclaiming Dharma: Gandhi, Ambedkar, and the Dalit Movement
- Mahatma Gandhi: Redefined Dharma as “ahimsa” (non-violence) and self-sacrifice.
- B.R. Ambedkar: Advocated for Dalit rights by rejecting caste-based Dharma.
- 1956: Ambedkar and thousands of Dalits converted to Buddhism, seeking an alternative ethical Dharma (Dhamma).
This modern reinterpretation underscores Dharma’s fluidity—it can be both a tool of oppression and a force for liberation.
Dharma in a Changing World: Ethical Dilemmas and AI
Future Ethical Questions:
- Economic Growth vs. Environmental Dharma – Should we prioritize economic progress or planetary well-being?
- Human vs. AI Dharma – How do we integrate artificial intelligence into a moral framework?
- Dharma Beyond Religion – Can Dharma become an ethical philosophy for all?
Even Adi Shankara’s definition of Dharma—as that which leads to material well-being and spiritual liberation—forces each era to redefine Dharma for its own time.
Conclusion: The Eternal Search for Dharma
Dharma is not a fixed rule—it is a living inquiry. From the Vedic hymns to the Mahabharata, from Buddhist ethics to modern social movements, Dharma has evolved with humanity.
Yet, at its core, Dharma remains a guide to righteous living, ethical action, and spiritual growth. Whether through Krishna’s wisdom, Gandhi’s non-violence, or Ambedkar’s justice, the journey of Dharma continues to unfold.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
1. Is Dharma the same as religion?
No. Dharma is broader than religion—it includes ethics, duty, law, and cosmic order.
2. Can Dharma change over time?
Yes. As societies evolve, Dharma adapts to new ethical challenges.
3. What is Swadharma?
Swadharma refers to personal duty, unique to each individual’s role and situation.
4. Did Buddhism reject Dharma?
No. Buddhism redefined Dharma as “Dhamma”—a fluid path of wisdom and self-awareness.